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| USS Constitution vs HMS Guerriere by Michel Felice Corne |
Go ask one of your friends about the War of 1812, and there's a good chance that they either won't know anything about it (except that it happened in 1812) or have made up their own version of events. Go to any website or source on the war, and it will likely either say that the British won, or the Americans won.
In reality, neither side won! And neither side lost. Neither side really accomplished their original goals, and the Americans did not surrender land to Britain, nor vice versa. In order to make this judgement, let us first cover the history of the War of 1812. I will do my best to represent both sides of the conflict fairly.
What caused the war?
In the early 19th century, the United Kingdom was at war with Napoleonic France. This almost constant state of war would not end until 1815. During this period, both countries tried to weaken each other economically. Napoleon's Continental System led to France and much of Napoleonic-controlled continental Europe refusing to trade with Britain; as a result, France seized American merchant ships that had been trading with Britain. The British tried to stop neutral countries from trading with France, and thus seized neutral ships as well, including American merchant vessels.
At first the United States tried using trade restrictions and embargoes to solve the problem regarding British and French maritime attacks; these efforts ultimately failed. Later, the US Government tried to play Britain and France off against each other in competition for American trade, saying that if one side ended restrictions on trade, then the US would refuse to trade with the other side. This, too, failed. On top of these issues, the British, needing more manpower at sea, impressed American sailors, forcing them into the Royal Navy. Meanwhile, British agents stirred up trouble between American settlers and native tribes in the "Old Northwest" (now present-day Illinois, Indiana, Ohio and Michigan), largely in order to halt American westward expansion and to create a native american buffer state for the protection of British Canada. Eventually, these combined tensions would set off the war; Congress declared war on Britain on June 18, 1812.
Neither country was prepared for war. The US Army and Navy were both very small, and the government was not ready or in a good position to command a war effort. On the other hand, the British were concentrated on their ongoing fight against Napoleon, which was much larger in scale and closer to home (for the British, not the Canadian colonists) than the War of 1812 would ever be.
1812
The fighting on land soon began. The British captured the American fort on Mackinac Island (in Michigan), as the defenders had not received notice of the war. American General William Hull invaded Canada from Michigan, yet he was cautious and easily intimidated by the smaller British force moving towards him under General Isaac Brock. He retreated to Detroit and ended up surrendering the city and his army to the British without a fight (even though the British were outnumbered). Further west, Fort Dearborn (now Chicago) was captured by the Potawatomi. Large parts of the northwest had fallen under British and/or Native American control, and it appeared as though the first year of the war on land went poorly for the United States. American attacks further east against Canada also failed, and British general Isaac Brock gave his life while repelling an American invasion at the Battle of Queenston Heights.
At sea, things went better for the United States. Though the British would tighten their blockade throughout the war, the Americans won several morale-boosting ship-to-ship victories, notably with the USS Constitution vs. HMS Guerriere and USS United States vs. HMS Macedonian duels. American commanders Isaac Hull and Stephen Decatur became national heroes.
1813
In 1813, both sides had mixed success. In the west, the British and their native allies assaulted Fort Meigs, and were repulsed, though many Americans were killed in the River Raisin Massacre. Henry Procter, the new British regional commander, tried to attack small Fort Stephenson on the Sandusky River in Ohio. William Henry Harrison, the American regional commander and future president (for one month) ordered the fort's commander, George Croghan, to abandon the fort. He refused, and with just 160 defenders managed to repel a British/Native American force nearly 10 times larger, thereby saving the American supply depots on the river and making Croghan a hero.
On the Niagara front, American forces under Winfield Scott launched an amphibious assault against Fort George, capturing it. When the Americans planned to move deeper into the Niagara Peninsula, Laura Secord, a local resident who had been born in Massachusetts, walked 20 miles to warn the British defenders. This enabled the British and their Native American allies to stop the American force at the Battle of Beaver Dams. Further east, an American fleet under Commodore Isaac Chauncey crossed Lake Ontario and landed a force of US troops commanded by explorer and General Zebulon Pike at Toronto, then York, the capital of Upper Canada. The British defenders were outnumbered and in the ensuing battle, the city was captured; however, a magazine exploded, killing Pike. American troops sacked and plundered the city, which in part led to the actions of the British in Washington D.C. the following year. A British attack on Sacket's Harbor (in New York) was repulsed, yet an American advance on Montreal later in the year was beaten back as well.
Late in 1813, the British made significant advances, occupying Fort Niagara and attacking Buffalo and Black Rock, New York. Perhaps the most notable American victory along the US-Canada border that year was when an American fleet on Lake Erie under Oliver Hazard Perry defeated its British counterpart under Robert Barclay, thus securing control of the lake for the United States and allowing General William Henry Harrison to re-occupy Detroit and enter Ontario, where he defeated General Procter and Tecumseh at the Battle of the Thames. This left part of Ontario in American hands for the rest of the war; Tecumseh's death in the battle broke the power of his pro-British native american confederacy.
In the meantime, American commander Isaac Chauncey and British commander James Yeo failed to fight a decisive battle for control of Lake Ontario. The British, having been embarrassed by several naval defeats, tightened their blockade of the eastern seaboard, grouped their ships together, and took measures to prevent their frigates from going one-on-one against the biggest American frigates (USS Constitution, USS United States and USS President). The British won a victory when the HMS Shannon under Philip Broke captured the USS Chesapeake, which was commanded by James Lawrence, near Boston. The USS Essex, under the command of David Porter, sailed into the Pacific and attacked Britain's whaling fleet, causing considerable damage until being defeated by the British in the Battle of Valparaiso (1814).
During the spring and summer of 1813, the British under Rear Admiral George Cockburn raided the Chesapeake Bay region, hitting small towns and fighting with local militia. Beaten at the Battle of Craney Island, the British did some more raiding before withdrawing, in part due to the summer heat. They would be back the following year.
1814
In 1814, the war was still largely stalemated, with neither side gaining the upper hand. However, Napoleon's defeat in Europe freed up British forces to be redeployed to North America. In the summer of 1814, the British would launch a multi-pronged invasion of the United States, with the hope of overwhelming the young nation. A British force struck Maine (then part of Massachussets); meeting only weak resistance, they had no trouble occupying the northern parts of the state.
This was but a small part of Britain's grand offensive, as a force under General Robert Ross and Rear Admiral George Cockburn landed in the Chesapeake. Advancing on a poorly-defended Washington D.C., the veteran British defeated a larger American force of mostly militia at the Battle of Bladensburg. This enabled them to enter the nation's capital, where they torched the White House and Capitol Building, among others. Pushed out by a storm, the British marched on to Baltimore. A smaller American force delayed the British attack at the Battle of North Point (General Ross was killed here), while a British fleet bombarded Fort McHenry. To the joy of the Americans and to the dismay of the British, the fort didn't fall, and the sight of the raised American flag inspired a captive Francis Scott Key to write "The Star-Spangled Banner", the American national anthem. The British withdrew from the region, never to return.
Up north, the British invaded New York, with a force better than 10,000 troops. But on Lake Champlain, an American squadron under Thomas Macdonough overcame their British counterpart, led by George Downey. This forced the Britsh invasion force to retreat back to Canada.
Until this event, the British had demanded substantial American cessions in exchange for peace, including a creation of a Native American buffer state, territorial gains for Canada and an American surrender of the Louisiana territory. However, the latest American victories, combined with British losses at Fort Erie in Canada and Fort Bowyer in the South, along with heavy economic losses for both sides, convinced the British to withdraw most of their demands in the peace negotiations at Ghent, in present-day Belgium. The resulting Treaty of Ghent was signed in December of 1814. Captured territories were returned to their rightful owners, and the war would end when both countries ratified the treaty. Yet, at that time, communication took much longer; therefore, the combat would continue into 1815.
Final Battles
Another British invasion, aimed at New Orleans, had been meant to give Britain an advantage in the peace negotiations. Neither the Americans nor the British in the region had gotten word that the war was over, therefore the British attack commenced as planned. However, General Andrew Jackson "Old Hickory", who had defeated the native Creek allies of the British, was waiting. In the January 1815 Battle of New Orleans, General Jackson's outnumbered and heterogeneously-mixed force crushed the redcoats, inflicting heavy casualties and a devastating defeat on the British and solidifying American control of the region.
At sea, the USS President, under Stephen Decatur, attempted to break through the blockade. The plan failed, and Decatur was forced to surrender the ship to a British squadron. Finally, in the Indian Ocean, the British Nautilus was captured by USS Peacock.
Analysis
By no means have I mentioned all the battles of the War of 1812, on land or at sea. There are many more stories of heroism, courage and suspense from characters on both sides. However, this summary should be enough for us to judge the results.
It appears as though both sides gained several different points of leverage over the other. For example, on land, the British held parts of Maine and the Old Northwest (such as Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin), yet the Americans held parts of Canada (for example, in southern Ontario) and controlled Lake Erie. The British imposed a blockade on the eastern seaboard which choked the US economy, yet, American raids and privateer attacks, such as those of USS Essex and USS Argus, inflicted heavy damage on British shipping.
Though the Americans won some of the battles in Canadian territory, they never managed to capture any important cities such as Montreal or Kingston. On the other hand, the British never took any important American cities of the time, such as New Orleans or Baltimore. These facts present the truth: the war was a stalemate. Neither side won, and neither side lost. Both sides had great victories and suffered crushing defeats. Neither side got exactly what they wanted out of the war. Britain kept control of Canada, and America preserved its independence.
It's sad and regrettable that so many Americans have forgotten about the importance of this war in the foundation of our country. The impact of the War of 1812 ranks up there with the Revolution and the Civil War because it was America's first big test as a nation. Several important questions were asked. Could the states of the United States, not yet fully united, work together? Was the United States strong enough to preserve its independence and repel a foreign invasion? Would the United States be able to muster heroes of courage and determination when they were needed? To sum it all up, could the United States press onward as a nation, with its independence intact, even when challenged by a powerful nation such as the British Empire?
Imagine for a second that the United States did lose the War of 1812. What if the British had captured Baltimore? What if the British won the Battle of Lake Champlain, marched down through New York, and cut the country to pieces? Even if the United States had remained independent, it would have been forced to accept Britain's terms. The United States might've lost northern New York and Maine, perhaps even the vast territories of the Louisiana Purchase. The pro-British and federalist New England, far from being disgraced, would have been, politically, on the winning side. It would be the United States, the Democratic-Republican Party, and James Madison who would have been ashamed.
The United States may have fragmented, with New England seceding to start its own country or perhaps even rejoin the British Empire. This would be seen as proof that the United States was a failure. With state sovereignty still a popular idea at the time, it is possible that the union would have dissolved into independent states. Without being united, America would have become an impoverished nation, dominated by rivalry, despotism and war. One of the founding fathers' greatest fears may have come to pass.
On the other hand, a defeat for the United States in the War of 1812 might have had the same effect that defeat in World War I had on Germany. Defeated, Americans may have been easy converts for some demagogue who would have promised revenge and glory. Perhaps this demagogue would have taken over the government, destroyed our democratic institutions, and transformed the nation into a militant police state. The United States would not have become a land of opportunity, a place for which millions were willing to risk everything to come and start their lives anew. America's abundant resources might have been used instead to build up a powerful military. This demagogue-leader could've then launched a new war with the United Kingdom, a war for revenge and retribution, a war which might have brought devastation and tragedy to everyone involved.
In conclusion, the War of 1812 was immensely important in creating an American identity. The fact that our national anthem comes from it is only a small part. Rather than accomplishing any of the goals that our leaders at the time sought to (for example, we failed to conquer Canada), the United States preserved its freedom, gained international respect, and was able to expand in its own right. Had the War of 1812 gone differently, our country would not be the same. Therefore, it would be a sincere sign of gratitude if more Americans would take the time to know at least the basic facts about this forgotten war.
Bibliography:
- The War of 1812, still seeking a little respect
- 10 Things You May Not Know About the War of 1812
- War of 1812 - History Channel
- Ships of Oak, Guns of Iron: The War of 1812 and the Forging of the American Navy, by Dr. Ronald Utt
- Wikipedia
- War of 1812 picture
